Within Goal Difficulty
Why Hard Goals Can Backfire for Beginners
When you are still figuring out how a complex task works, a demanding performance target can compete with the learning needed to improve.
On this page
- What changes when the method is still unknown
- The scheduling task evidence on difficult outcome goals
- How to recognize when performance pressure is premature
Page outline Jump by section
Introduction
Hard goals are often useful when you already know how to do the task and mainly need more effort, persistence or focus. For a beginner facing a complex task, however, the bottleneck is different: you are still discovering what works. A demanding outcome such as “complete ten correct schedules” or “reach this score” can make immediate results compete for attention with the experimentation and knowledge-building needed to improve.
That is not merely a theoretical exception to goal-setting advice. In a controlled scheduling experiment with 114 business students, a difficult outcome goal helped on the simple version of the task, but on the complex version a difficult learning goal produced better performance and more effective task strategies.[Sage Journals]journals.sagepub.comSage JournalsThe Effect of Learning versus Outcome Goals on a Simple versus a Complex Task - Dawn Winters, Gary P. Latham, 1996… A related scheduling experiment went further: when participants had to acquire knowledge to perform correctly, a vague “do your best” instruction actually produced better performance than a specific, difficult outcome target, while a difficult learning goal performed best of all.[Wiley Online Library]onlinelibrary.wiley.comWiley Online LibraryThe effect of distal learning, outcome, and proximal goals on a moderately complex task - Seijts - 2001 - Journal of…
The important distinction, then, is not between ambition and timidity. It is between asking a novice to produce a demanding result now and asking them to master the methods that will eventually make that result attainable.
What changes when you do not know the method yet
A performance or outcome goal specifies the result to achieve: finish a certain number of correct cases, reach a particular score, capture a given market share. A learning goal instead specifies something that must be discovered, understood or mastered on the way to good performance.
That difference becomes important when performance depends on strategies the learner does not yet possess. Researchers Gerard Seijts and Gary Latham argue that challenging outcome goals are most appropriate when better results primarily require increased effort and persistence. When the central requirement is acquiring knowledge and skill, directing attention towards the end result can be counterproductive; a learning goal instead directs attention towards discovering effective processes and strategies.[Academy of Management Journals]journals.aom.orgAcademy of Management JournalsLearning versus performance goals: When should each be used? | Academy of Management PerspectivesFebruary 1…
The problem can be understood as competition for limited attention. Early in complex skill acquisition, people have to think consciously about information that experienced performers can handle more automatically. Research on skill acquisition describes attentional demands as changing substantially with practice: beginners must first build declarative knowledge, compile that knowledge into usable procedures and eventually develop more proceduralised performance.[Sage Journals]journals.sagepub.comSage JournalsDeclarative and Procedural Knowledge in Skill Acquisition: An Aptitude — Treatment Interaction Framework for Training - Phil… In three experiments involving 1,010 US Air Force trainees performing computerised air-traffic-control tasks, Ruth Kanfer and Phillip Ackerman specifically examined how goal setting interacts with these changing information-processing demands.[EBSCO OpenURL]openurl.ebsco.comEBSCO OpenURLMotivation and cognitive abilities: An integrative/aptitude-treatment interaction approach to skill acquisition. | EBSCOhost…
This helps explain why “try harder” can be the wrong intervention at the beginning. If the learner already knows the effective procedure, extra effort can be channelled into executing it. If the learner does not know the procedure, more pressure to hit an outcome does not supply the missing knowledge. Research reviewing difficult goals on complex tasks has consequently treated strategy development as a central part of the problem rather than assuming that performance shortfalls simply require greater effort.[Taylor & Francis Online]tandfonline.comTaylor & Francis OnlineGoal Levels, Complex Tasks, and Strategy Development: A Review and Analysis: Human Performance: Vol 4, No 1Novembe…
There is an important qualification. Complexity does not mean hard outcome goals invariably damage learning. DeShon and Alexander’s experiments found that difficult, specific goals failed to improve performance when processing of a complex task was implicit, but produced gradual improvements when task processing was explicit; their strategy analyses indicated that better strategies helped account for the gains.[ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comGoal Setting Effects on Implicit and Explicit Learning of Complex Tasks - ScienceDirectJanuary 1, 1996… The more defensible conclusion is therefore narrower: outcome pressure is especially risky when a novice still needs attention and experimentation to discover how the task works.
The scheduling task shows the problem clearly
The Winters and Latham scheduling experiment is particularly useful because it compared goal types while also varying the complexity of the underlying task. The researchers recruited 114 business students and examined performance on simple and complex versions of a scheduling problem.[Sage Journals]journals.sagepub.comSage JournalsThe Effect of Learning versus Outcome Goals on a Simple versus a Complex Task - Dawn Winters, Gary P. Latham, 1996…
On the simple task, the conventional goal-setting result appeared: assigning an outcome goal produced significantly more correct schedules than telling participants merely to do their best. Once the task became complex, the pattern changed. Participants given a specific learning goal performed significantly better than those given an outcome goal or a “do your best” instruction. Crucially, the learning-goal participants also used significantly more effective task strategies than participants in either of the other conditions.[Sage Journals]journals.sagepub.comSage JournalsThe Effect of Learning versus Outcome Goals on a Simple versus a Complex Task - Dawn Winters, Gary P. Latham, 1996…
That strategy result matters because it points towards a mechanism. The learning goal did not simply make people feel better about a difficult assignment. It changed what they did while confronting it. Instead of concentrating primarily on reaching the immediate output number, they were directed towards discovering useful ways of performing the task.
A subsequent experiment by Seijts and Latham used another class-scheduling task with 96 participants who needed to acquire knowledge to perform it correctly. Here the contrast was even sharper: a “do your best” outcome instruction produced higher performance than a specific, difficult outcome goal. Yet the specific, difficult learning goal outperformed “do your best”. Participants pursuing the learning goal discovered and implemented more task-relevant strategies, and the number of strategies discovered was positively related to performance.[Wiley Online Library]onlinelibrary.wiley.comWiley Online LibraryThe effect of distal learning, outcome, and proximal goals on a moderately complex task - Seijts - 2001 - Journal of…
Those comparisons prevent an easy misreading of the evidence. The lesson is not that beginners should have vague, easy goals. In the second experiment, the strongest condition was still specific and difficult; what changed was what the difficulty was attached to. Instead of demanding an ambitious immediate output, the researchers made learning itself the demanding target.
The wider evidence supports a complexity boundary
The scheduling experiments sit within a broader body of research showing that task complexity changes how reliably difficult performance goals help.
An earlier meta-analysis by Robert Wood, Anthony Mento and Edwin Locke examined 125 goal-setting studies conducted between 1966 and 1985 specifically to test task complexity as a moderator of goal effects.[ResearchGate]researchgate.netOpen source on researchgate.net. That work helped establish an important boundary around the otherwise robust finding that specific, difficult goals can improve performance: goal effects cannot be treated as independent of the kind of task being performed.
A separate meta-analysis by Christopher Utman examined experimentally induced learning versus performance motivational states. Across 43 effect sizes, it found an overall performance advantage for learning goals, with evidence suggesting that the advantage was concentrated in relatively complex rather than simple tasks. The author cautioned that the simple-versus-complex comparison was based on a limited subset of studies, so it should be treated as suggestive rather than a universal law.[Sage Journals]journals.sagepub.comSage Journals Performance Effects of Motivational State: A Meta-AnalysisSage Journals Performance Effects of Motivational State: A Meta-Analysis
Later experimental evidence has also reproduced the central pattern outside the scheduling paradigm. In a complex business simulation, Seijts and colleagues found that a specific learning goal produced higher performance than either a specific performance goal or a vague goal. The researchers noted that participants were effectively novices in the simulated industry: they had not yet acquired effective performance routines and had to learn how to manage their organisations over time.[ResearchGate]researchgate.netOpen source on researchgate.net.
At the same time, the literature does not support turning “always use learning goals” into another rigid rule. A study of 84 teams performing an interdependent command-and-control simulation found the opposite pattern at team level: specific learning goals performed worse than general learning goals or specific performance goals, with coordination helping to explain the result.[ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comOpen source on sciencedirect.com. That is a useful warning about overgeneralisation. The strongest evidence for the novice-learning advantage concerns individuals acquiring strategies on novel or complex tasks; coordination introduces additional demands.
How to recognise premature performance pressure
The research suggests a practical diagnostic question: is poor performance currently caused mainly by insufficient effort, or by not yet knowing what effective performance requires?
An outcome target is less likely to be premature when the procedure is already understood. Someone who has repeatedly performed the task successfully, knows which actions produce the result and can diagnose ordinary mistakes may benefit from a harder numerical target because the target can organise effort around an established method.
Performance pressure deserves more caution when several signs appear together:
- You are still experimenting with basic approaches. Different attempts use substantially different methods because you do not yet know which is reliable.
- Errors are informative rather than merely careless. A failed attempt reveals something about how the system works, rather than simply showing that you did not try hard enough.
- You cannot explain the gap between your result and the target. Knowing that you scored 40 when the goal was 70 is not very actionable if you cannot yet identify which decisions produced the missing 30.
- Thinking about the score crowds out experimentation. You avoid trying potentially useful approaches because they might temporarily reduce measured performance.
- More effort reproduces the same mistakes. Persistence is increasing, but your strategy is not improving.
These are not reasons to remove challenge. They are reasons to relocate it. Instead of “achieve ten correct outcomes”, the demanding goal might be to identify and test several strategies, learn which variables matter, accurately diagnose recurring errors or master the component procedures that determine the final result. That is consistent with the scheduling evidence, where learning goals generated more effective strategies and ultimately better performance.[Sage Journals]journals.sagepub.comSage JournalsThe Effect of Learning versus Outcome Goals on a Simple versus a Complex Task - Dawn Winters, Gary P. Latham, 1996…
The target can change as competence changes
The apparent conflict between learning goals and hard performance goals largely disappears once goal choice is treated as something that can change with skill.
Early in learning, the scarce resource is often understanding. A beginner has to allocate attention to rules, relationships, feedback and strategy discovery. A demanding outcome goal can consume some of that same attention without telling the learner how to improve. Research on complex skill acquisition therefore emphasises that the effects of motivational interventions depend partly on the timing of goal setting and on how information-processing demands change with practice.[ResearchGate]researchgate.netOpen source on researchgate.net.
Later, once effective procedures have become established, the constraint can shift. The person may know perfectly well what to do but need greater effort, persistence, speed or consistency. At that point a hard performance target can become useful rather than distracting.
This makes “challenge without overwhelm” more precise. For a novice, an ambitious goal need not disappear; its object may need to change. Make the learning difficult and specific while the method is uncertain. Make the outcome increasingly demanding once the method is understood. The scheduling experiments provide a particularly clean demonstration of why: the same broad idea of setting a challenging goal can help on a simple, understood task yet lose to a learning-focused goal when successful performance still depends on discovering how to do the work.[Sage Journals]journals.sagepub.comSage JournalsThe Effect of Learning versus Outcome Goals on a Simple versus a Complex Task - Dawn Winters, Gary P. Latham, 1996…
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